Semiconductors with predictable, reliable electronic properties are difficult to mass-produce because of the required chemical purity, and the perfection of the crystal structure, which are needed to make devices. Because the presence of impurities in very small proportions can have such big effects on the properties of the material, the level of chemical purity needed is extremely high. Techniques for achieving such high purity include zone refining, in which part of a solid crystal is melted. Impurities tend to concentrate in the melted region, leaving the solid material more pure. A high degree of crystalline perfection is also required, since faults in crystal structure such as dislocations, twins, and stacking faults, create energy levels in the band gap, interfering with the electronic properties of the material. Faults like these are a major cause of defective devices in production processes. The larger the crystal, the harder it is to achieve the necessary purity and perfection; current mass production processes use six-inch diameter crystals which are grown as cylinders and sliced into wafers.